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Home  ›  Why Is The Primary Motor Cortex Important For The Control Of Movement?

Why Is The Primary Motor Cortex Important For The Control Of Movement?

Written By Saturday, 23 April 2022 Add Comment Edit

Region of the cerebral cortex

Motor cortex
Human motor cortex.jpg

Topography of human motor cortex. Supplementary motor area labelled SMA.
Details
Identifiers
Latin cortex motorius
MeSH D009044
NeuroNames 2332
NeuroLex ID oen_0001104
Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy

[edit on Wikidata]

The motor cortex is the region of the cerebral cortex involved in the planning, control, and execution of voluntary movements. Classically, the motor cortex is an area of the frontal lobe located in the posterior precentral gyrus immediately inductive to the key sulcus.

Motor cortex controls unlike muscle group

Components of the motor cortex [edit]

The motor cortex can exist divided into 3 areas:

1. The primary motor cortex is the principal contributor to generating neural impulses that pass down to the spinal string and control the execution of motility. Nevertheless, some of the other motor areas in the brain too play a part in this function. It is located on the inductive paracentral lobule on the medial surface.

2. The premotor cortex is responsible for some aspects of motor command, possibly including the preparation for movement, the sensory guidance of motion, the spatial guidance of reaching, or the direct control of some movements with an emphasis on control of proximal and trunk muscles of the torso. Located inductive to the primary motor cortex.

3. The supplementary motor surface area (or SMA), has many proposed functions including the internally generated planning of move, the planning of sequences of movement, and the coordination of the two sides of the body such as in bi-manual coordination. Located on the midline surface of the hemisphere anterior to the primary motor cortex.

  • The posterior parietal cortex is sometimes besides considered to be office of the grouping of motor cortical areas; however information technology is best to regard it every bit an association cortex rather than motor. It is thought to be responsible for transforming multisensory information into motor commands, and to be responsible for some aspects of motor planning, in addition to many other functions that may not exist motor related.
  • The master somatosensory cortex, especially the function chosen area 3a, which lies directly against the motor cortex, is sometimes considered to be functionally part of the motor control circuitry.

Other encephalon regions outside the cerebral cortex are also of great importance to motor function, well-nigh notably the cerebellum, the basal ganglia, pedunculopontine nucleus and the red nucleus, every bit well equally other subcortical motor nuclei.

The premotor cortex [edit]

In the earliest piece of work on the motor cortex, researchers recognized but one cortical field involved in motor control. Alfred Walter Campbell[one] was the get-go to suggest that there might be two fields, a "primary" motor cortex and an "intermediate precentral" motor cortex. His reasons were largely based on cytoarchitectonics, or the report of the advent of the cortex nether a microscope. The master motor cortex contains cells with behemothic cell bodies known as "Betz cells". These cells were mistakenly thought to exist the main outputs from the cortex, sending fibers to the spinal cord.[1] Information technology has since been found that Betz cells account for about two-iii% of the projections from the cortex to the spinal cord, or nigh ten% of the projections from the primary motor cortex to the spinal cord.[2] [3] The specific function of the Betz cells that distinguishes them from other output cells of the motor cortex remains unknown, but they go along to be used every bit a marker for the primary motor cortex.

Other researchers, such as Oskar Vogt, Cécile Vogt-Mugnier[four] and Otfrid Foerster[5] too suggested that motor cortex was divided into a master motor cortex (area four, co-ordinate to Brodmann's[6] naming scheme) and a college-order motor cortex (expanse 6 according to Korbinian Brodmann).

Wilder Penfield[seven] [8] notably disagreed and suggested that there was no functional stardom between surface area 4 and area 6. In his view both were role of the same map, though area 6 tended to emphasize the muscles of the back and neck. Woolsey[nine] who studied the motor map in monkeys too believed there was no stardom between primary motor and premotor. M1 was the name for the proposed single map that encompassed both the primary motor cortex and the premotor cortex.[nine] Although sometimes "M1" and "primary motor cortex" are used interchangeably, strictly speaking, they derive from different conceptions of motor cortex organization.[ citation needed ]

Despite the views of Penfield and Woolsey, a consensus emerged that surface area 4 and area 6 had sufficiently different functions that they could exist considered unlike cortical fields. Fulton[x] helped to solidify this distinction between a primary motor cortex in area iv and a premotor cortex in area half-dozen. Every bit Fulton pointed out, and equally all subsequent inquiry has confirmed, both primary motor and premotor cortex project directly to the spinal cord and are capable of some direct control of movement. Fulton showed that when the principal motor cortex is damaged in an experimental brute, movement soon recovers; when the premotor cortex is damaged, movement soon recovers; when both are damaged, motility is lost and the animal cannot recover.

Some commonly accepted divisions of the cortical motor organization of the monkey

The premotor cortex is now by and large divided into four sections.[eleven] [12] [13] First it is divided into an upper (or dorsal) premotor cortex and a lower (or ventral) premotor cortex. Each of these is further divided into a region more toward the front end of the brain (rostral premotor cortex) and a region more toward the dorsum (caudal premotor cortex). A prepare of acronyms are commonly used: PMDr (premotor dorsal, rostral), PMDc, PMVr, PMVc. Some researchers use a unlike terminology. Field 7 or F7 denotes PMDr; F2 = PMDc; F5=PMVr; F4=PMVc.

PMDc is oft studied with respect to its role in guiding reaching.[14] [15] [16] Neurons in PMDc are active during reaching. When monkeys are trained to attain from a key location to a set of target locations, neurons in PMDc are active during the preparation for the reach and also during the attain itself. They are broadly tuned, responding best to ane management of reach and less well to different directions. Electrical stimulation of the PMDc on a behavioral fourth dimension calibration was reported to evoke a circuitous motility of the shoulder, arm, and hand that resembles reaching with the mitt opened in preparation to grasp.[11]

PMDr may participate in learning to acquaintance arbitrary sensory stimuli with specific movements or learning capricious response rules.[17] [18] [19] In this sense it may resemble the prefrontal cortex more than other motor cortex fields. It may likewise have some relation to middle motility. Electric stimulation in the PMDr tin can evoke center movements[20] and neuronal activeness in the PMDr can be modulated by eye movement.[21]

PMVc or F4 is often studied with respect to its role in the sensory guidance of move. Neurons here are responsive to tactile stimuli, visual stimuli, and auditory stimuli.[22] [23] [24] [25] These neurons are especially sensitive to objects in the space immediately surrounding the trunk, in and so-called peripersonal space. Electrical stimulation of these neurons causes an credible defensive movement as if protecting the body surface.[26] [27] This premotor region may exist part of a larger circuit for maintaining a margin of safety around the body and guiding movement with respect to nearby objects.[28]

PMVr or F5 is often studied with respect to its role in shaping the hand during grasping and in interactions between the paw and the mouth.[29] [30] Electrical stimulation of at to the lowest degree some parts of F5, when the stimulation is applied on a behavioral time scale, evokes a complex movement in which the hand moves to the mouth, closes in a grip, orients such that the grip faces the mouth, the cervix turns to align the mouth to the paw, and the mouth opens.[xi] [26]

Mirror neurons were starting time discovered in area F5 in the monkey encephalon by Rizzolatti and colleagues.[31] [32] These neurons are active when the monkey grasps an object. Even so the aforementioned neurons become active when the monkey watches an experimenter grasp an object in the same way. The neurons are therefore both sensory and motor. Mirror neurons are proposed to exist a basis for understanding the deportment of others past internally imitating the actions using one'southward ain motor control circuits.

The supplementary motor cortex [edit]

Penfield[33] described a cortical motor expanse, the supplementary motor area (SMA), on the top or dorsal part of the cortex. Each neuron in the SMA may influence many muscles, many body parts, and both sides of the body.[34] [35] [36] The map of the body in SMA is therefore extensively overlapping. SMA projects directly to the spinal cord and may play some direct role in the control of movement.[37]

Based on early work using brain imaging techniques in the homo brain, Roland[38] suggested that the SMA was especially active during the internally generated programme to brand a sequence of movements. In the monkey brain, neurons in the SMA are active in association with specific learned sequences of move.[39]

Others take suggested that, because the SMA appears to control movement bilaterally, it may play a function in inter-transmission coordination.[40]

Yet others have suggested that, considering of the straight project of SMA to the spinal cord and because of its action during elementary movements, it may play a direct role in motor control rather than solely a high level role in planning sequences.[37] [41]

On the footing of the movements evoked during electrical stimulation, it has been suggested that the SMA may have evolved in primates as a specialist in the part of the motor repertoire involving climbing and other complex locomotion.[eleven] [42]

Based on the pattern of projections to the spinal string, it has been suggested that another gear up of motor areas may lie next to the supplementary motor area, on the medial (or midline) wall of the hemisphere.[37] These medial areas are termed the cingulate motor areas. Their functions are non yet understood.

History [edit]

In 1870, Eduard Hitzig and Gustav Fritsch demonstrated that electric stimulation of certain parts of the domestic dog brain resulted in muscular contraction on the contrary side of the torso.[43]

A fiddling later on, in 1874, David Ferrier,[44] working in the laboratory of the Westward Riding Lunatic Asylum at Wakefield (at the invitation of its director, James Crichton-Browne), mapped the motor cortex in the monkey brain using electrical stimulation. He constitute that the motor cortex contained a rough map of the body with the anxiety at the meridian (or dorsal part) of the brain and the face at the bottom (or ventral function) of the brain. He also institute that when electrical stimulation was maintained for a longer fourth dimension, such as for a 2d, instead of existence discharged over a fraction of a second, then some coordinated, seemingly meaningful movements could exist acquired, instead of merely musculus twitches.

After Ferrier'south discovery, many neuroscientists used electrical stimulation to study the map of the motor cortex in many animals including monkeys, apes, and humans.[1] [four] [5] [45] [46]

One of the first detailed maps of the human motor cortex was described in 1905 past Campbell.[1] He did autopsies on the brains of amputees. A person who had lost an arm would over time plain lose some of the neuronal mass in the part of the motor cortex that normally controls the arm. Besides, a person who had lost a leg would bear witness degeneration in the leg function of motor cortex. In this way the motor map could be established. In the period between 1919 and 1936 others mapped the motor cortex in detail using electrical stimulation, including the husband and wife team Vogt and Vogt,[4] and the neurosurgeon Foerster.[5]

Perhaps the best-known experiments on the human motor map were published by Penfield in 1937.[seven] [eight] Using a procedure that was common in the 1930s, he examined epileptic patients who were undergoing brain surgery. These patients were given a local anesthetic, their skulls were opened, and their brains exposed. Then, electric stimulation was practical to the surface of the brain to map out the oral communication areas. In this mode, the surgeon would exist able to avoid any damage to spoken communication circuitry. The brain focus of the epilepsy could then be surgically removed. During this procedure, Penfield mapped the effect of electric stimulation in all parts of the cerebral cortex, including motor cortex.

Penfield is sometimes mistakenly considered to be the discoverer of the map in motor cortex. It was discovered approximately lxx years before his piece of work. Yet, Penfield drew a picture of a human-like effigy stretched over the cortical surface and used the term "homunculus" (atomic of "man", Latin for "man") to refer to it. It is maybe for this reason that his work has become then popular in neuroscience.

The motor cortex map [edit]

A uncomplicated view, that is well-nigh certainly also express and that dates dorsum to the earliest work on the motor cortex, is that neurons in the motor cortex control motion by a feed-forward direct pathway. In that view, a neuron in the motor cortex sends an axon or projection to the spinal cord and forms a synapse on a motor neuron. The motor neuron sends an electrical impulse to a muscle. When the neuron in the cortex becomes active, it causes a musculus wrinkle. The greater the activity in the motor cortex, the stronger the muscle force. Each point in the motor cortex controls a muscle or a pocket-sized group of related muscles. This clarification is just partly right.

About neurons in the motor cortex that project to the spinal string synapse on interneuron circuitry in the spinal cord, not straight onto motor neurons.[47] I suggestion is that the direct, cortico-motoneuronal projections are a specialization that allows for the fine control of the fingers.[47] [48]

The view that each point in the motor cortex controls a musculus or a express set of related muscles was debated over the entire history of research on the motor cortex, and was suggested in its strongest and most farthermost grade by Asanuma[49] on the ground of experiments in cats and monkeys using electric stimulation. However, about every other experiment to examine the map, including the classic work of Ferrier[44] and of Penfield[7] showed that each point in the motor cortex influences a range of muscles and joints. The map is greatly overlapping. The overlap in the map is generally greater in the premotor cortex and supplementary motor cortex, only even the map in the primary motor cortex controls muscles in an extensively overlapped manner. Many studies have demonstrated the overlapping representation of muscles in the motor cortex.[50] [51] [52] [53] [54] [55] [56]

Information technology is believed that equally an animate being learns a complex movement repertoire, the motor cortex gradually comes to coordinate among muscles.[57] [58]

Map of the torso in the human encephalon.

The clearest example of the coordination of muscles into complex move in the motor cortex comes from the work of Graziano and colleagues on the monkey encephalon.[11] [26] They used electrical stimulation on a behavioral time scale, such as for half a 2d instead of the more typical hundredth of a 2nd. They found that this type of stimulation of the monkey motor cortex often evoked complex, meaningful deportment. For example, stimulation of 1 site in the cortex would crusade the mitt to shut, motion to the mouth, and the mouth to open up. Stimulation of some other site would crusade the hand to open, rotate until the grip faced outward, and the arm to project out as if the animal were reaching. Different complex movements were evoked from different sites and these movements were mapped in the same orderly way in all monkeys tested. Computational models[59] showed that the normal motility repertoire of a monkey, if arranged on a sheet such that similar movements are placed most each other, will result in a map that matches the bodily map found in the monkey motor cortex. This work suggests that the motor cortex does not truly comprise a homunculus-type map of the body. Instead, the deeper principle may exist a rendering of the movement repertoire onto the cortical surface. To the extent that the movement repertoire breaks down partly into the actions of separate body parts, the map contains a rough and overlapping body system noted by researchers over the past century.

A similar organisation by typical motility repertoire has been reported in the posterior parietal cortex of monkeys and galagos[60] [61] and in the motor cortex of rats[62] [63] and mice.[64]

Evolution of the motor cortex [edit]

Mammals evolved from mammal-like reptiles over 200 million years ago.[65] These early mammals developed several novel encephalon functions about likely due to the novel sensory processes that were necessary for the nocturnal niche that these mammals occupied.[66] These animals nigh likely had a somatomotor cortex, where somatosensory information and motor data were processed in the same cortical region. This allowed for the acquisition of only simple motor skills, such equally quadrupedal locomotion and striking of predators or casualty. Placental mammals evolved a detached motor cortex about 100 mya.[65] Co-ordinate to the principle of proper mass, "the mass of neural tissue controlling a particular function is appropriate to the amount of information processing involved in performing the part.[66]" This suggests that the development of a discrete motor cortex was advantageous for placental mammals, and the motor skills that these organisms acquired were more circuitous than their early-mammalian ancestors. Further, this motor cortex was necessary for the arboreal lifestyles of our primate ancestors.

Enhancements to the motor cortex (and the presence of opposable thumbs and stereoscopic vision) were evolutionarily selected to prevent primates from making mistakes in the dangerous motor skill of leaping betwixt tree branches (Cartmill, 1974; Silcox, 2007). Equally a event of this pressure level, the motor system of arboreal primates has a disproportionate degree of somatotopic representation of the hands and feet, which is essential for grasping (Nambu, 2011; Pons et al., 1985; Gentilucci et al., 1988).

Come across also [edit]

  • Cortical homunculus
  • Motor skill

References [edit]

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Farther reading [edit]

  • Canavero Due south. Textbook of therapeutic cortical stimulation. New York: Nova Science, 2009

External links [edit]

  • Motor Cortex

Why Is The Primary Motor Cortex Important For The Control Of Movement?,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_cortex

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